Neanderthals (also Neandertals, Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)[8] are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago. They most likely went extinct due to great climatic change, disease, or a combination of these factors.
It is unclear when Neanderthals split from modern humans; studies have produced various intervals ranging from 315,000[18] to more than 800,000 years ago.[19] The time of divergence of Neanderthals from their ancestor H. heidelbergensis is also unclear. The oldest potential Neanderthal bones are dated to 430,000 years ago, but the classification is uncertain.[20] Neanderthals are known from numerous fossils, especially from after 130,000 years ago.[21] The type specimen, Neanderthal 1, was found in 1856 in the German Neander Valley. After much debate over their validity, Neanderthals were depicted as being primitive, stupid, and brutish for much of the early 20th century. Although knowledge and perception of them has markedly changed since then in the scientific community, the image of the unevolved caveman archetype remains prevalent in popular culture.
Neanderthal technology is thought to have been quite sophisticated. It includes the Mousterian stone tool industry[24][25] and possibly the abilities to create fire[26][27] and build cave hearths,[28][29] make the adhesive birch bark tar,[30] craft at least simple clothes similar to blankets and ponchos,[31] weave,[32] go seafaring through the Mediterranean,[33][34] make use of medicinal plants[35][36][37] as well as treat severe injuries,[38] store food,[39] and use various cooking techniques, such as roasting, boiling,[40] and smoking.[41] Neanderthals made use of a wide array of food, mainly hoofed mammals,[42] but also other megafauna,[22][43] plants,[44][45][46] small mammals, birds, and aquatic and marine resources.[47] Although they were likely apex predators, they still competed with cave bears, cave lions, cave hyaenas, and other large predators.[48] A number of examples of symbolic thought and Palaeolithic art have been inconclusively[49] attributed to Neanderthals, namely possible ornaments made from bird bones[50][51] or shells,[52] collections of unusual objects including crystals and fossils,[53] engravings,[54] music production indicated by the Divje Babe Flute,[55] and Spanish cave paintings contentiously[56] dated to before 65,000 years ago.[57][58] Some claims of religious beliefs have been made.[59] Neanderthals were likely capable of speech, possibly articulate, although the complexity of their language is not known.[60][61]
Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals had a more robust build and proportionally shorter limbs. These features are often explained as adaptations to conserve heat in a cold climate, but may also be adaptations for sprinting in the warmer, forested landscape that Neanderthals often inhabited.[62] Nonetheless, they had cold-specific adaptations, such as specialised body fat storage[63] and an enlarged nose to warm air[64] (although the nose could have been caused by genetic drift[65]). Average Neanderthal men stood around 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) and women 153 cm (5 ft) tall, similar to pre-industrial modern humans.[66] The braincases of Neanderthal men and women averaged about 1,600 cm3 (98 cu in) and 1,300 cm3 (79 cu in) respectively,[67][68][69] which is within the range of the values for modern humans.
The total population remained low, proliferating weakly harmful genes,[70] and precluding effective long-distance networks. Nonetheless, there is evidence of regional cultures and thus regular communication between communities.[71][72] They may have frequented caves, and moved between caves seasonally.[73] Neanderthals lived in a high-stress environment with high trauma rates, and about 80% died before the age of 40.[74] Evidence for interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans was presented in the 2010 Neanderthal genome project's draft report.[75][76][77] It possibly occurred 316–219 thousand years ago,[78] but more likely 100,000 years ago and again after 65,000 years ago.[79] They also appear to have interbred with Denisovans, a different group of archaic humans, in Siberia.[80][81] Around 1–4% of genomes of Eurasians, Australo-Melanesians, Native Americans, and North Africans are Neanderthal genes, while the inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa have either none or possibly about 0.3% Neanderthal genes. In all, about 20% of distinctly Neanderthal genes survive today.[82] Although many of the genes inherited from Neanderthals may have been detrimental and selected out,[70] Neanderthal introgression appears to have affected the modern human immune system,[83][84] and is also implicated in several other biological functions and structures,[85] but a large portion appears to be non-coding DNA.[86]
